V3's blog: what is computer?

Selasa, 24 Februari 2009

what is computer?

Definisi

Komputer berasal dari bahasa latin computare yang mengandung arti menghitung. Karena luasnya bidang garapan ilmu komputer, para pakar dan peneliti sedikit berbeda dalam mendefinisikan termininologi komputer.

Untuk mewujudkan konsepsi komputer sebagai pengolah data untuk menghasilkan suatu informasi, maka diperlukan sistem komputer (computer system) yang elemennya terdiri dari hardware, software dan brainware. Ketiga elemen sistem komputer tersebut harus saling berhubungan dan membentuk kesatuan. Hardware tidak akan berfungsi apabila tanpa software, demikian juga sebaliknya. Dan keduanya tiada bermanfaat apabila tidak ada manusia (brainware) yang mengoperasikan dan mengendalikannya.
1.Hardware atau Perangkat Keras: peralatan yang secara fisik terlihat dan bisa djamah.
2.Software atau Perangkat Lunak: program yang berisi instruksi/perintah untuk melakukan pengolahan data.
3.Brainware: manusia yang mengoperasikan dan mengendalikan sistem komputer.

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this is my paper about communicative language teaching

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background

Language Teaching Methods are just like fashion. They are designed, used and replaced. We, teacher once admired the grammar Translation method (GTM), Then the Direct Method (DM), Situational Language Teaching (SLT), Audio Lingual Method (ALM), Natural Approach (NA) and Communicative Approach (CA). We are all aware that the Communicative Approach has arisen as negative reaction against Audio Lingual Method. They give special attention to the grammar and base their analysis on Latin and Greek grammar. They believe that the good writers are good language users. They pay no attention to the importance of using the language for communication (Richard and Rodger, 1993).

On the contrary to the above view, Lado in Diller (1971) argued that language teaching should aim at making the students speak the language. Thus, teacher should teach the language and not teach about the language. In addition, separating language from speaking is like separating what is social from what is individual. Hence, GTM does not qualify as language teaching. A new approach then comes, Communicative Language Teaching.

CHAPTER II

CONTENT

1. Approach

1.1. Theory of language

The communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as communication.

Seven basic functions that language performs for children learning their first language, are

the instrumental function ; using language to get things
the regulatory function

using language to control the behavior of others

the interact ional function

using language to create interaction with others

the personal function

using language to express personals feelings and meanings

the heuristic function

using language to learn and to discover

the imaginative function

using language to create a world of imagination

the representational function

using language to communicate information

Learning a second language was similarly viewed by proponents of Communicative Language Teaching as acquiring the linguistic means performs different kinds of functions.

At the level of language theory, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has a rich, if somewhat eclectic, theoretical base. Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language follow,

language is a system for the expression of meaning
the primary function of language is for interaction and communication
the structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses
the primary unit of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse

1.2. Theory of learning

In contrast to the amount that has been written in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) literature about communicative dimensions of language , little has been written about learning theory.

Not a great deal has been written about the learning theory behind the communicative approaches, but here are some principles that may be inferred:

activities that involve real communication promote learning
activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning
language that is meaningful to the learner promotes learning

1.2.1. Learner-Centered

The role of the instructor in CLT is quite different from traditional teaching methods. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is in charge and "controls" the learning. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning.

The teacher still sets up exercises and gives direction to the class, but the students do much more speaking than in a traditional classroom. This responsibility to participate can often lead to an increased sense of confidence in using the language. Putting the teacher in charge of everything in the traditional classroom .

Language is used for communication. For this reason, CLT makes use of communication to teach languages. Whereas traditional language teaching places a lot of emphasis on grammar rules and verb conjugations, CLT emphasizes real-life situations and communication in context. While grammar is still important in the CLT classroom, the emphasis is on communicating a message.

In CLT, students practice real-life situations, for example, buying food at the market or asking someone for directions. In these exercises, the goal is for the student to communicate his or her needs and thoughts, without worrying about having perfect grammar.

1.2.2. Social Context

CLT also stresses social and situational contexts of communication. For example, in many languages, the form of "you" changes depending on the age and status of the two speakers. Addressing a person in the proper way can make a big difference in having a successful exchange, even if the verb tenses not right.

2. Design

In Indonesia English is the first foreign language to be taught as a compulsory subject in the secondary school . Version of CLT is adopted for teaching language skills such as reading, writing, and speaking. The description leads us to some basic question related to CLT :

2.1. Objectivities

First, people question about the suitability of this method with the objective of the English instruction in Indonesia , that is the development of reading skill. Most of proponents of CLT have claimed that the teaching objective is the development of communicative competence, that is the ability to use English for communication in a real-life situation. According to Canale (1993) Communicative Competence involves four domains of knowledge and skills; grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence. This means that the objective of CLT is not restricted to the ability to produce well-formed sentence, but it includes the ability to incorporate pragmatic aspects in the language skill.

2.2. Syllabus

Second, people also question about the syllabus design. The English syllabus has adopted a variable focus design. Under this design, structure, notion , function and situation are the guiding principle of organization . in the lower secondary syllabus , linguistic form is the organizing principle . At the upper secondary school , the emphasis shifts to language function as the organizing principle. Thus, in general the lower secondary school syllabus tends to be structural, while the upper secondary syllabus tends to be notional-functional.

2.3. Type of Learning and teaching activities

There may be some aspect of the communicative approach which are appealing. The following review provides several techniques and materials associated with the communicative approach.

2.3.1. Authentic Material

To overcome the typical problem which students cannot transfer what they learn in the classroom to the outside world and to expose students to natural language in a variety of situations , the communicative approach advocates the use of authentic materials. The teacher may use a copy of a genuine newspaper or magazine articles. They can also assign the students homework, requiring them to listen to alive radio or television broadcast.

2.3.2. Scramble Sentences

The student are given a passage (a text) in which the sentences are in scrambled order. This may be a passage they have worked with or one they have not seen before. In addition to written a passage student might also be asked to unscramble the lines of mixed-up dialog. Or asked to put the pictures of a picture script story in order and write lines to accompany the pictures.

2.3.3. Language Games

Games are used frequently in the communicative approach . The students find them enjoyable, and if they are properly designed, they give students valuable communication practice. Games that are truly communicative, have three features of communication ; information gap, choice and feedback.

2.3.4. Picture Strip Story

Many activities can be done with picture strip stories. In this activity, one student in a small group is given a strip story. She show a first picture of the story to the other members of the group and ask the to predict what the second picture will look like. An information gap exist when the student in the groups do not know what the picture contain. They have a choice as to what their prediction will be and how they will word it.

3. Procedure

It is difficult to summarize the procedure in communicative classes because of the wide variety of activities used. Description of typical classroom procedures used in a lesson based on CLT principle is not fessible.Finochiaro and Brumfit offer a lesson outline for teaching the function “making suggestion” for learner in the beginning level of the secondary school program. They suggest that CLT procedures are evolutionary than revolutionary. The procedure are as follows :

1. presentation of a brief dialog or several mini dialogs, preceded by a motivation (relating the dialog situation to the learners’ probable community experiences ) and a discussion of the function and situation-people, roles, setting, topic and the informality or formality of the language which the function and situation demand. (at the beginning levels, where all the learners understand the same native language , the motivation can well be given in their native tongue).

2. Oral practice of each utterance of the dialog segment to be presented that day (entire class repetition, half class, groups, individuals) generally preceded by your model. If min9 dialogs are used , they engage in the similar practice.

3. Question and answers based on the dialog topic and situation itself (inverted who, or questions).

4. question and answers related to the student’ personal experiences but centered around the dialog theme.

5. study on the basic communicative expressions in the dialog or one of the structure with familiar vocabulary in ambiguous utterance or mini-dialogs (using pictures, simple real objects, or dramatization) to clarify the meaning of the expression or structure.

6. Learner discovery of generalizations or rules underlying the functional expression or structure .This should include at least four points ; its oral and written forms ( the elements of which it it composed, e.g. “how about + verb + ing?”); its position in the utterance ; its formality or informality in the utterance , and in the case of a structure , its grammatical function and meaning.

7. Oral recognition, interpretative activities (two ti five depending on the learning level, the language knowledge of the students, and related factors0.

8. Oral production activities proceeding from guided to freer communication activities

9. Copying of the dialog or mini-dialogs or modules if they are not in the class text

10. Sampling of the written homework assignment , if given

11. Evaluation of learning (oral only), e.g. “How would you ask your friend to…………? And how would you ask me to ……………?”.

We can see that such classroom procedure clearly has much in common with that of structural, situational , or audiolingual principle. The traditional Procedure are not really rejected but they are modified and extended . Thing that are common among the procedures are that each unit serves and ostensible focus. New teaching points are introduced with dialogues , followed by controlled practice of the main grammatical patterns. The teaching point are , then, contextualized through situational practice .

CHAPTER 3

CLOSING

CONCLUSION

CLT is the best considered an approach rather than a method. CLT appeared at a time when British language teaching was ready for a paradigm shift. The adoption of communicative approach rises important issue for teacher training , material development testing and evaluation.

From the discussion above we can draw, at least, two conclusions. First, in fact there are various concepts to refer to CLT. Proponent of CLT, however , shares common beliefs that the goal of teaching language is the development of communicative competence in its broad meaning . Communicative Competence should include all of the four language skills. Any one of these skills maybe achieved through CLT . Most literatures of CLT , however , give emphasis on oral skill. Communicative competence , then means competence in oral skill .

Second, the 1984 English Syllabus is said to be designed following the principle of Communicative Approach . In reality, however, this syllabus appears more structural in its approach . The Communicative Approach used in the teaching skills has been misinterpreted and has aroused controversies. The 1994 English syllabus , therefore , has adopted the same approach but has been redefined. It has a new name , namely , Meaningful Approach, (Pendekatan Kebermaknaan) which can be interpreted into two ways : meaning based and meaningful instruction.

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Selasa, 24 Februari 2009

what is computer?

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this is my paper about communicative language teaching